Factors Affecting Changes in Urban Temperature

Factors Affecting Changes in Urban Temperature 1.1 Urban Climatology Urban climatology is a branch of  climatology  that examines interactions between the urban  area and the weather conditions around it, their impacts on each other, and the different spatial and temporal scales at which these interactions occur. There are many differences between the urban and rural climates; these differences generally include the quality of the air as well as the wind and rainfall patterns. However, the most observable difference is the  Urban Heat Island  (UHI) effect which represents the temperature difference between the rural and urban sites. This field’s main implementation is its use for optimal urban design and planning of cities [21]. Urban areas have a significant effect on the overlying air due to a variations in the nature of surface cover (urban form) and emissions of heat, water vapor and materials that are involved human activities (urban function). Although the urban-rural differences have been recognized for a long period of time, only recently urban climatology has started collecting actual urban observations, developing urban models and validating these models using the required data. 1.1.1 Urban Heat Island Effect Urban warming, also called ‘Urban Heat Island’ effect (UHI), is a well-established phenomenon. The intensity of the UHI has been measured essentially as being the temperature difference between rural and urban locations. Many studies have been conducted in order to quantify the UHI in large cities, mainly in Europe and other areas [16]. This phenomenon is considered as a representation of all the microclimatic differences caused by man-made modifications of the urban surface (Landsberg, 1981). The Urban Heat Island effect was first identified in 1820 by Luke Howard who noticed that in London, urban temperatures were higher by 3.7 °F at night and lower by 0.34 °F during the day compared to the rural surroundings. The intensity of Heat island varies depending on the density of the urban area, with the highest values of UHI being found in the most densely built areas. Moreover, in cities located in the high-latitude region, and having relatively cold weather, heat islan ds are considered as an advantage since it contributes to a reduction in heating loads; however, in cities located in mid- and low-latitude regions, heat islands are a major source of outdoor thermal discomfort for the urban population, and indoor thermal discomfort of buildings’ occupants (and consequently higher indoor cooling loads), especially in the summer period [22]. On the other hand, there is a phenomenon called the urban cool island (UCI) which is an opposite effect to the UHI, where urban areas are found to be colder than the rural arid (desert) surrounding environments. The UCI is the highest during the daytime, where the effect of increased shading (from buildings) and evapotranspiration (from artificial, man-made water bodies and vegetation) in urban areas contributes to some reduction in local temperatures compared to the unshaded rural arid surroundings. This phenomenon is mainly found in countries where rural areas are primarily deserts, such as the case of the UAE [19]. As a matter of fact, the UHI intensity is influenced by the location of the urban, as well as by the climate regime, season and synoptic patterns [36]. Evidently, UHI shows higher intensities during the summer season due to the larger amounts of solar radiation received by the surface and leading to higher absorption and release of heat through urban structures compared to the winter period [37]. 1.1.1.1 Factors Affecting Urban Temperature Generation of UHI UHI is the results of the interactions among several factors which can be classified as controllable and uncontrollable factors as shown in Fig.4. Figure 4. Generation of Urban Heat Island (UHI) [xx] The uncontrollable factors of UHI include climatic variables (synoptic scale) and weather conditions (local scale) such as air speed and cloud covers. Some studies show that the UHI is negatively correlated with wind speed and cloud cover (Kim and Baik, 2005; Oke, 1982). The controllable factors include urban design and structure related variables such as vegetation, building construction material, and sky view factor and population related variables such as anthropogenic heat sources (power plants, automobiles, air-conditioners). The main source of heat produced and enclosed in an area originates from the sun which emits this heat in the form of solar radiation. The major energy conservation and heat transfer processes (through conduction, convection and radiation) have a dominant role in the heat exchange within an urban area. The structures that are located in the canopy layer level, such as walls, roofs and green spaces absorb and reflect solar radiation in different ways. The ab sorption and storage of solar radiation (in the form of heat energy) occurs from sunrise till sunset, then the environment starts cooling down. The stored heat energy in urban structures is then released to the surrounding environment, based on the sky view factor and the building material of these urban structures. An urban area is typically characterized by a decreased sky view (due to the presence of obstructing buildings), as a result, the ability of heat release by long-wave radiation is reduced in all cities, leading to high heat storage in building surfaces. Surface absorptivity, which is a thermal property of any material, represents the fraction of total incident light that is effectively absorbed by a surface, and is believed to be high in cities and is considered to be one of the main reasons of UHI. Moreover, as a result of the lack of vegetation in most of the cities, latent heat due to evapotranspiration is also reduced in these areas. Convective heat removal and trans fer by wind are also found to be negatively affected by the high roughness of structures in urban areas. In addition, air pollutants that are found in polluted urban areas, are able to capture and re-radiate long wave radiation and obstruct the resulting radiative surface cooling. This leads to the formation of a greenhouse-like effect, causing UHI. Furthermore, the magnitude of UHI has been positively correlated with the size of the urban population of a city in some studies (Hung et al., 2005), while it was found to have be independent of urban population density in other studies (Kim and Baik, 2004). Hung et al. (2005) have found a maximum UHI of 8 °C in the city of Bangkok where the population is of 11 million, while they have observed a maximum UHI of 7 °C in the city of Shanghai where the population density reaches 12.55 million. The population affects heat generation in 2 ways: directly, as an increased density of people results in increased human metabolisms; and indirec tly, as an increased population is typically correlated with a higher number of buildings and vehicles, as well as an increased industrial activity and pollutants concentration [18]. To summarize the factors affecting the UHI, Oke et al.[7] indicates the following key factors: a decrease in radiative heat loss (canyon effect), an increase in thermal storage within the buildings of the urban areas, the release of anthropogenic heat, the reduction of evaporative cooling and turbulent heat transfer in street canyons, in addition to some other minor factors [4]. Following is a list of the factors affecting urban temperature City Scale (S: Site Area in meter square) The UHI is believed to be more intense in large cities where the cumulative effect of the urban warming of numerous street canyons is combined and increases the intensity of the UHI compared to cities of a smaller scale. Thermal Properties of the Construction Material (surface absorptivity (m) and albedo) of Buildings and of the Street Surface Material A study that was conducted in Singapore in order to investigate the most important factors causing the UHI, found that the buildings’ facade materials and colors had a significant impact on the local climate by increasing the temperature in the center of a canyon by up to 2.5 °C, in the case where the facade material had high surface absorptivity (Rajagopalan et al, 2008) [22]. Geometry Orientation of the urban area, includes Building Density (FA/S), Aspect Ratio (the ratio of the Height of Building over the Width of Street), and the Orientation of the street canyon, relative to the incident solar radiation. Urban geometry has a major role in the heat build-up in urban areas. Urban canyon can be designed in a way that improves natural ventilation within the city, hence enhancing heat release. Moreover, the orientation of a street canyon has the key role in determining the quantity of solar radiation that the canyon surfaces receive [22]. As the aspect ratio increases, shading increases, and air temperatures subsequently decrease, especially during some hours of the day [31]. Vegetation The evapotranspiration process from vegetation is another means of urban surfaces cooling, especially in mid and low latitudes having warm arid climatic conditions. Urban areas having abundant impervious surfaces have usually more runoff water than their rural surroundings. The runoff water quickly drains and less surface water becomes available for evapotranspiration in the long run, consequently influencing the urban surface energy balance. This results in a decreased evapotranspiration rate in urban areas which is a main contributor in higher daytime temperatures [22]. Anthropogenic Heat (population density, Number of cars, HVAC system): It mainly originates from heat emissions coming from vehicles and air conditioners. Even though indoor cooling (using air conditioners) improves the indoor thermal comfort of residents in a building, the waste heat dissipated into the outside environment negatively affects the outdoor urban thermal environment. Studies show that air conditioners can cause significant heat accumulation (Chow et al, 2000). Nevertheless, this issue is currently addressed by implementing central air-conditioning systems in many commercial buildings of major cities. Using this method, the heat dissipation takes place using cooling towers (Kikegawa et al, 2003; Kolokotroni et al, 2006) [22].

Top 10 Natural Disasters

-Rank: 1st -Criteria for Ranking: 306 death (the most deadly earthquake in year 2012) -Date: August 11, 2012 -Location: East Azerbaijan Province, Iran -Type: Twin earthquakes (Magnitude 6. 3 and 6. 4) -Description: The earthquake resulted in an estimated 306 deaths, over 5000 injured, most of houses destroyed. -Sources of information: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Earthquakes_in_2012#cite_note-98 and http://earthquake. usgs. gov/earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/usb000bupa. php#details -Rank: 2nd -Criteria for Ranking: 30 killed, 109 missing Date: June 1, 2012 -Location: Bugimwera village, Uganda -Type: Landslide -Description: The landslide resulted in 30 deaths and more than 100 were still missing. There were about 400,000 people required humanitarian help. A great number of houses were destroyed and over 3000 need to be resettled -Sources of information: http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/06/26/mount-elgon-landslide-2012-missing-uganda_n_1626893. html and http://www. rnw. nl/africa /article/hundreds-homeless-many-watchful-after-uganda-mudslide Rank: 3rd -Criteria for Ranking: 113 death -Date: February 6, 2012 -Location: Visayas, Philippines (near island of Negros, and Cebu) -Type: Earthquake (Magnitude 6. 7) -Description: The earthquake resulted in an estimated 113 deaths, about 112 injured; about 15,000 buildings and 17 bridges were destroyed. -Sources of information: http://earthquake. usgs. gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2012/usb0007wgq/#summary and http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Earthquakes_in_2012#September -Rank: 4th -Criteria for Ranking: 81 death Date: September 7, 2012 -Location: Yiliang, Zhaotong, Yunnan Province, China -Type: Earthquake (Magnitude 5. 6) -Description: The earthquake resulted in an estimated 81 deaths, about 821 injured; more than 6600 houses were flattened and thousands were damaged; about $552 million lost in the earthquake. -Sources of information: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/2012_Yunnan_earthquakes -Rank: 5th -Criteria for Ranking : 77 death -Date: June 29, 2012 -Location: Brahmaputra River, State of Assam, northeastern India -Type: Flood Description: 77 were killed in the flood, over 2 million people and 2084 villages were affected. -Sources of information: http://india. blogs. nytimes. com/2012/09/24/floods-and-landslides-kill-dozens-in-north-east-india/ and http://www. nytimes. com/2012/06/30/world/asia/india-floods-swamp-more-than-2000-villages. html -Rank: 6th -Criteria for Ranking: 75 death -Date: June 11, 2012 -Location: Baghlan Province, Afghanistan -Type: Earthquakes (Magnitude 5. 4 and 5. 7) -Description: The earthquake resulted in an estimated 75 deaths, about 13 injured.The earthquake causes mountains in the Hindu Kush region to break off. Sayi Hazara was completely destroyed that only one home survived. -Sources of information: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/June_2012_Afghanistan_earthquakes -Rank: 7th -Criteria for Ranking: 27 death -Date: May 20, 2012 -Location: Emilia-Romagna, Italy -Type: Ear thquakes (Magnitude 6. 1 and 5. 8) -Description: The earthquake resulted in an estimated 27 deaths, about 400 injured (50 in the first earthquake and 350 in the second).It also caused more than 45,000 people lost their home. -Sources of information: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/2012_Northern_Italy_earthquakes -Rank: 8th -Criteria for Ranking: 20 death -Date: September 23, 2012 -Location: Northeastern states of Sikkim and Assam, India -Type: Floods and landslides -Description: 20 people died, 1. 3 million of people were affected by flood, over 200,000 of people lost their houses. -Sources of information: http://india. blogs. nytimes. com/2012/09/24/floods-and-landslides-kill-dozens-in-north-east-india/ Rank: 9th -Criteria for Ranking: 17 death -Date: November 4, 2012 -Location: Andhra Pradesh, India -Type: Flood -Description: The flood resulted in 17 deaths and destroyed more than 1246 houses. Crops were destroyed over 243,634 hectares. Roads were also heavily damaged. -Sources of information: http://www. disaster-report. com/2012/11/recent-natural-disasters-list-november-4. html -Rank: 10th -Criteria for Ranking: 8 death -Date: February 29, 2012 -Location: Harrisburg, Illinois, the United States -Type: Tornado (EF-4)

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Eight Stages Of Genocide - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2186 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/10/30 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Genocide Essay Did you like this example? The term genocide was first introduced by Raphael Lemkin to first describe the Holocaust (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). He stated that by By genocide, we mean the destruction of a nation of an ethnic group (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). There are eight stages of genocide which are predictable but not inevitable (Stanton). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Eight Stages Of Genocide" essay for you Create order During each of these eight stages, preventative measures could be taken to end it (Stanton). This is a non-linear process and logically the later stages of genocide have to be preceded by previous stages, however, all stages will continue to operate throughout the entire process of genocide (Stanton). These eight stages of genocide are classification, symbolization, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, extermination, and denial (Stanton). All of these stages can be applied to the study of the Jewish Holocaust and the first six stages are the early warning signs. The Holocaust took place in between 1933 and 1945 (Paulsson, 2017). It resulted in the murder of six million Jewish people which was called the Final Solution (Paulsson, 2017). It began with the first stage of classification. In classification, you have an us versus them mentality (Stanton). A society will begin to distinguish by nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion (Stanton). Classification is the main way to divided society and it creates a power struggle between groups (Stanton). In Germany, they divided the German and the Jew (Stanton). The racist part of Nazi ideology was rooted in 19th-century theories of human differences based on race and was connected to imperialism and social Darwinism (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 247). In the Nazi ideology, these theories of race became mixed with traditional European antisemitism to produce a doctrine against the Jewish people (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 248). Jews were classified as Untermenschen, meaning subhuman people in German (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 248). They were blamed for Germanys defeat in World War I, for communism, and were viewed as a threat to Germans (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 248). Films were used to spread anti-semitism, to depict Jewish people are subhuman (My Jewish Learning). For Example, The Eternal Jew in 1940 depicted th em as wandering parasites who chase sex and money and destroy others cultures (My Jewish Learning). German newspapers regularly printed anti-semitic caricatures of Jews and after the German invasion of Poland, they depicted Jews as not only subhuman but enemies of the German Reich (My Jewish Learning). Stage two which is symbolization is where people are given names or other symbols to go with the classifications (Stanton). However, the first two stages of classification and symbolization will not result in genocide unless dehumanization the next stage of dehumanization also occurs according to the Eight Stages of Genocide (Stanton). However, the dehumanization was happening in these first two stages as well. Jews as unwilling members of the pariah group during this time had the yellow star imposed on them as a symbol to (Stanton). This yellow star was inscribed with the word jude meaning Jew in German (Rosenburg, 2018). Before it was imposed on all are a symbol, the star was used as vandalism when it was painted on the windows of Jewish owned businesses (Rosenburg, 2018). This was after the Nazis declared a boycott against them, however, it was before top leaders had discussed imposing as a symbol to wear (Rosenburg, 2018). After the Kristallnacht in 1938, it was first suggested as a badge and after the beginning of the Second World War in 1939 that it was to be imposed on all Jews over ten years of age in Germany as well as occupied territories (Rosenburg, 2018). However, it was not until 1941 that this was finally implemented (Rosenburg, 2018). This yellow star badge helped the Nazis to visually label Jewish people (Rosenburg, 2018). Now all Jews could be seen, not just the stereotypical and religious ones who already dressed a certain way (Rosenburg, 2018). This would leave them all vulnerable to future attacks (Rosenburg, 2018). This was very humiliating to Jews and a step back to before the Middle Ages, before they were emancipated (Rosenburg, 2018). Not only did this badge represent humiliation for the Jews, but it also now represented a real fear (Rosenburg, 2018). The third stage is dehumanization which is where one group denies the humanity of another group (Stanton). Members of the dehumanized group are compared to animals, vermin, insects, disease (Stanton). With dehumanization, the perpetrators of a genocide, in this case, the Nazis will overcome the natural human revulsion against murder (Stanton). In this stage, hate speech and incitement against the targeted group increases over the radio, in print, and so on and it did during the Holocaust too (Stanton). Examples are from earlier with the films mentioned, the printed caricatures and the list goes on. The fourth stage is organization. Genocide is always organized and it is usually done so by the state (Stanton). Special army units or militias are often trained and united for this purpose and armed (Stanton). During this time, plans are made to carry out genocidal killings (Stanton). While the Nazis debated how to solve the Jewish question, it began to impose a totalitarian system in order to establish the legal and organizational framework necessary to victimize the Jewish people (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 248). Soon after Hitler took power and after the dehumanization, Hitler went into th e third phase with calling for war against the Jews (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 249). During this time, the complex task of Aktionen, the coordination, and implementation of genocide was entrusted to Heydrichs Schutzstaffel (defense echelons) and its ancillary elements (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 248). These consisted of the Einsatzgruppen (Mobile killing squads) and the Totenkopfverb? ¤nde (Death head units), there was also the Gestapo (the secret police), and the Order Police (Ordnungspolizei) which all would participate in what came to be known as the Final Solution (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 251). During this time, a structure of ghettos and concentration camps was also put in place, with Eichmann pushing the Madagascar Plan in mid-1940, and this was followed by attempts to expatriate limited numbers of Jews (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 251). The fifth stage is polarization. During this time, extremists will drive the groups apart and hate groups or governments will ramp up the broadcasting of propaganda against the targeted group (Stanton). Laws may forbid marriage or social intera ction of those who have been othered, in the case of the Holocaust, the Jews (Stanton). There are many examples. After Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, he began to polarize with prohibiting Jews from owning land (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). In 1934, Jews were banned from the German Labor Front, the same year they were also denied national health insurance (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). In 1935, Jews were banned from military service and this polarization only slowed down in 1936 when the Olympic Games were held in Berlin (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). In 1937, Jews were banned from professional occupations and denied tax reductions and in 1938, they were forced to register their wealth and property and businesses (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). In July of 1938, Jews were forced to apply for identity cards and their passports were stamped with large Js as Jews to prevent them from seeking asylum in other countries (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). Violent attacks will increase against a group during this time and the Kristallnacht or the Night of Broken Glass is an example in this stage of p olarization (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). The next stage of genocide is preparation. During this stage, the victims are identified and separated because of their ethnic or religious identity (Stanton). Death lists can be drawn up during this time, members are again forced to wear identifying symbols like the yellow star badge the Jews had to wear during the Holocaust (Stanton). Their property and businesses can be expropriated and they can often be segregated into ghettos during this phase and after that deported to concentration camps (Stanton). They can also be confined to famine-affected regions during this time and starved to death (Stanton). This is when a genocide emergency must be declared if it were to happen again today (Stanton). In 1939, Goring ordered Heydrich to speed up the emigration of Jews as Hitler threatened Jews in the Reichstag speech and in the same year, a Decree regarding employment of Jews allowed the Nazi regime to take them as forced labor (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). After Germany invaded Poland in September of 1939, Heydrich issued instruct ions to the Einsatzgruppen there to begin ghettoization and it was followed by the forced labor of Polish Jews (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). In 1940, the Auschwitz concentration camp was established in Poland as others were being established (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 250). The next or seventh stage is extermination. This is when the mass killing quickly begins and legally can be called genocide (Stanton). The killers call it extermination rather than killing because to them, their victims are not real humans (Stanton). When a genocide is officially sponsored by a state, the armed forces often work closely with militias in order to carry out these killings (Stanton). At this stage of genocide, only rapid and overwhelming military intervention can put an end to the genocide (Stanton). In this case, the Final Solution or the Nazi plan for the Jews of Europe, now called the Holocaust now took place without any intervention to prevent it. This took place from 1942 to 1945 (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 252). There were previous pogroms and mass killings in Europe in 1941 in Ukraine, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Latvia, and they were precursors to it (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 252). They were successful to test the Third Reich plans for mass murder and the semina l event to enable the Final Solution was the Wannsee Conference in January of 1942 (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 252). This is where they concerned themselves and worked out the details over the administration and the coordination that would be needed in order to carry out the mass killing (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 252). Heyrich in the role of chief executioner controlled the millions of Jews who were to be forced into over a dozen ghettos and fifteen concentration camps (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 253). In December 1941, Chelmno concentration camp began to process Jews with carbon monoxide and after that Zyklon B gas and similar operations began to be carried out in the other concentration camps (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 253). This continued and the fear of defeat during the second world war made the Nazis panic and speed up their exterminations (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 253). After Germany surrendered, it was discovered throughout a span of twelve years, it had exterminated over six million Jews or three-fourths of European Jewry (Dekmejian, 2007, p. 253). The eighth and final stage is denial and it always follows a genocide (Stanton). It is one of the indicators that further genocides could happen (Stanton). Those who perpetrated the genocide will dig up mass graves, burn bodies, and attempt to hide the evidence of their crimes in other ways and even go to intimidate witnesses and survivors into silence (Stanton). Not only will they attempt to deny their crimes, but they will often blame th e victims for what they did to them (Stanton). If they can, they will attempt to block the investigation of their crimes or if they can, they will flee if they cannot hold power (Stanton). In the case of the Holocaust, there was coded language as it was going on and most of the orders were verbal rather than written down to keep it a secret (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). This would make it easier for those to deny it later. On top of that, Himmler attempted to hide the truth of the Holocaust from the advancing allied armies through burning bodies and to attempt to destroy forensic evidence (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). The SS forced the prisoners of camps to dig up mass graves and to burn more bodies to rid themselves of evidence of their mass murders (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). The Nazis also sent Jews from ghettos away in an attempt to make them seem less crowded, planted flowers, remodeled them, and allowed the Red Cross to visit them for only six hours in a hoax to hide the horrors (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). Despite all of this, some perpetrators, victims, and witnesses talked about it and more and more information began to leak out and the Nazis contin uined a misinformation campaign to confuse the international community (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). During the war, the allies made up many stories about the Nazis to gain support for the war efforts, therefore when truth about the Holocaust came out, many were skeptical because of previous lies (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). Today there are deniers who still exist. Some do so out of ignorance, however, many still do so out of hateful, political, anti-semitic reasons (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). Others claim that it is a hoax perpetuated by Jews to advance their interests today which is very concerning and sounds like the anti-semitic propaganda before the Holocaust (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). Others claim it is a hoax created to advance Israels goals and others deny it because they again want to advance their own modern day Nazi movements (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). Holocaust denial is a very serious problem that unites far right radical groups who want to promote new Naziism and Islamist groups who seek to destroy Israel (US Holocaust Memorial Museum). This cannot go ignored or unchallenged because this is how hate can rise and get out of control which is what can lead to a genocide if the world ignores it.